Learning English as a second language

در بخش گرامر فقط مطالبی که درکشان سختتر است و یا پر کاربرد ترند گفته می شود.

Causative Verbs 

Jack had his house painted.

This sentence is similar in meaning to: Someone painted Jack's house. OR Jack's house was painted by someone. Causative verbs express the idea of someone causing something to take place. Causative verbs can be similar in meaning to passive verbs.

Examples:

My hair was cut. (passive)
I had my hair cut. (causative)

Both 'make' and 'have' can be used as causative verbs.

Make

'Make' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person requires another person to do something.

Construction Chart

Subject + Make + Person + Base Form of Verb

Examples:

Peter made her do her homework.
The teacher made the students stay after class.

Have

'Have' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants something to be done for them. This causative verb is often used when speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative verb 'have'.

Construction Chart: Use 1

Subject + Have + Person + Base Form of Verb

Examples:

They had John arrive early.
She had her children cook dinner for her.

Construction Chart: Use 2 Subject + Have + Object + Past Participle

Examples:

I had my hair cut last Saturday.
She had the car washed at the weekend.

Note: This form is similar in meaning to the passive.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Adjectives and adverbs have comparative and superlative forms. Use the comparative to compare one item with another. Use the superlative to compare more than two items.

Comparative: She is smarter than he is.
Superlative: She is the smartest student in the room.

A comparative can also compare one item with a class of things. If the item is a part of the class, add else or other to make this relationship clear.

The motorcycle sped faster than any sports car.
But: The British import sped faster than any other sports car.

However, if each item in the class is considered separately, use a superlative instead.

The British import sped the fastest of all the sports cars.

Note that, as in the above example, the word all, not any, accompanies the superlative.

Forming Comparatives and Superlatives

Most adjectives of one syllable and some of two syllables end in er in their comparative form and est in their superlative form. Other adjectives and most adverbs are preceded by more or less as comparatives and most or least as superlatives.

Do not use more or less with a comparative with an er ending. Likewise, do not use most or least with a superlative formed with est.

Incorrect: less healthier plant; most prettiest baby
Correct: less healthy plant; prettiest baby

Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives. If in doubt, consult a dictionary to determine the correct forms.

Comparatives and Superlatives in Series

In a string of comparatives formed with more or less or of superlatives formed with most or least, the word denoting degree must appear before only the first item.

Rex is the most loving, loyal, and obedient dog in the world.

For emphasis, though, you may choose to repeat the word before each modifier.

Rex is the most loving, most loyal, and most obedient dog in the world.

If you include an er comparative or est superlative in such a series, list it first to avoid misreading.

Incorrect: Rex is more loving and friendlier than my neighbor’s dog. [can be read: Rex is more loving and more friendlier…]
Correct: Rex is friendlier and more loving than my neighbor’s dog.

Illogical Comparisons

The items in a comparison should be things that logically can be compared.

Incorrect: James’s enthusiasm was greater than any other student.

In this example, enthusiasm and student are such dissimilar items that it does not make sense to compare them. You can often correct this type of error by adding the words that of where needed.

Correct: James’s enthusiasm was greater than that of any other student.

In the name of the all mighty

The Summary of Treasure Island